Volcanoes in Chile

Chile has 90 Holocene volcanoes catalogued by the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program, making it the fifth most volcanically active country in the world after the [[country:united-states|United States]], [[country:japan|Japan]], [[country:indonesia|Indonesia]], and [[country:russia|Russia]]. These volcanoes stretch along a remarkable 4,300-km corridor of the Andes mountains, from the arid Atacama Desert in the north to the rain-soaked fjords of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego in the south. Chile's volcanic arc is one of the longest continuous chains on Earth, a direct product of the ongoing subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate at a convergence rate of approximately 6.5 cm per year.

The country's volcanoes range from towering 6,000-m-plus giants in the northern altiplano — including Ojos del Salado, the world's highest volcano at 6,879 m (22,572 ft) — to low-elevation lava domes and volcanic fields near the southern tip of South America. Among these 90 volcanoes, [[volcano:villarrica|Villarrica]] stands out with 152 confirmed eruptions, making it one of the most active volcanoes in the entire Southern Hemisphere. Chile has experienced eruptions at every level of the [[special:volcanic-explosivity-index|Volcanic Explosivity Index]] from VEI 0 through VEI 6, including devastating caldera-forming events during the Holocene.

The country's volcanic history includes 582 confirmed eruptions, with a combined VEI distribution that reflects the dominance of moderate Strombolian to Vulcanian activity (301 events at VEI 2) punctuated by periodic large explosive eruptions. Today, Chile operates the Red Nacional de Vigilancia Volcánica (RNVV) through SERNAGEOMIN, which actively monitors more than 45 volcanoes using seismometers, GPS stations, gas analyzers, and satellite imagery.

Chile's extraordinary volcanic density is a direct consequence of the Nazca-South American plate subduction system, one of the most tectonically active convergent boundaries on the planet. The oceanic Nazca Plate, generated at the East Pacific Rise, subducts beneath the continental South American Plate along the Peru-Chile Trench at rates between 6 and 9 cm per year. As the subducting slab descends to depths of 90–150 km, water and other volatiles are released from the oceanic crust and overlying sediments, lowering the melting point of the mantle wedge above and generating hydrous basaltic magmas.

These magmas rise through the thick Andean continental crust — exceeding 70 km in thickness in central Chile — where they undergo fractional crystallization and assimilation, producing the predominantly andesitic to dacitic compositions that characterize Chilean volcanoes.

Chile's volcanic arc is not uniform, however. It is divided into four distinct volcanic zones separated by gaps where subduction geometry suppresses volcanism. The Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ, 14°S–28°S) encompasses the high-altitude volcanoes of northern Chile and the Atacama, where the crust is thickest and erupted magmas are typically andesitic to dacitic.

The Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ, 33°S–46°S) extends through the Chilean Lakes District and produces the country's most active volcanoes, including [[volcano:villarrica|Villarrica]], [[volcano:llaima|Llaima]], and [[volcano:puyehue-cordon-caulle|Puyehue-Cordón Caulle]], with compositions ranging from basalt to rhyolite. The Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ, 49°S–55°S) encompasses the remote Patagonian volcanoes like [[volcano:lautaro|Lautaro]] and [[volcano:burney-monte|Monte Burney]], where the Chile Ridge triple junction creates a uniquely complex tectonic setting. Between 28°S and 33°S, a 'flat slab' segment where the Nazca Plate subducts at a shallow angle creates a volcanic gap — explaining why the Santiago region lacks active volcanoes despite sitting on a subduction zone.

Unlike [[country:iceland|Iceland]], which sits on a divergent mid-ocean ridge, Chile's volcanism is entirely subduction-driven, placing it squarely within the [[special:ring-of-fire|Ring of Fire]].

**Villarrica** — [[volcano:villarrica|Villarrica]] is Chile's most active volcano by eruption count and one of the most active on Earth. This 2,847-m (9,341-ft) glacier-clad [[special:types-of-volcanoes|stratovolcano]] near the resort town of Pucón has produced 152 confirmed eruptions, including VEI 5 events. A persistent lava lake — one of only a handful worldwide — glows within its summit crater.

Its most destructive historical eruptions (1964, 1971, 2015) generated dangerous lahars that swept down river valleys threatening populated areas.

**Llaima** — [[volcano:llaima|Llaima]] is one of Chile's largest volcanoes by volume (400 km³) and among its most active, with 56 confirmed eruptions. This 3,125-m (10,253-ft) basaltic-to-andesitic stratovolcano has two historically active craters and last erupted in 2009 with lava fountaining and lava flows. Its VEI 5 eruption around 6880 BCE was one of the largest Holocene events in Chile.

**Lascar** — [[volcano:lascar|Láscar]] is the most active volcano in the northern Chilean Andes, with 32 confirmed eruptions. Rising to 5,592 m (18,346 ft) in the Atacama, this andesitic-to-dacitic stratovolcano produced a major VEI 4 eruption in 1993 that generated a 25-km eruption column and pyroclastic flows extending 8.5 km from the summit. It remains fumarolically active and most recently erupted in 2023.

**Cerro Hudson** — Rising to just 1,905 m (6,250 ft), Hudson's modest elevation belies the 10-km-wide ice-filled caldera that was not even recognized until its 1971 eruption. The southernmost volcano in the Chilean Andes related to Nazca Plate subduction, it produced two VEI 6 eruptions during the Holocene and a devastating VEI 5 eruption in 1991 that deposited ash across Patagonia and Argentina.

**Calbuco** — [[volcano:calbuco|Calbuco]] erupted dramatically in April 2015, producing two powerful sub-Plinian explosions (VEI 4–5) visible from Santiago. Rising to 1,974 m (6,476 ft) above the Chilean lake district, this andesitic stratovolcano has 36 confirmed eruptions. Its 2015 event forced the evacuation of 6,500 people and deposited ash across Argentina.

**Puyehue-Cordón Caulle** — This NW-SE-trending volcanic complex last erupted in 2011–2012 in a VEI 5 event that closed airports across South America and deposited significant tephra into Argentine Patagonia. The complex has produced 26 confirmed eruptions and includes 5 VEI 5 events over the Holocene, making it one of Chile's most explosively productive systems.

**Nevados de Chillán** — A compound volcano with three late-Pleistocene to Holocene stratovolcanoes built within nested calderas, Chillán has 26 confirmed eruptions. Its most recent eruptive cycle (2016–2022) included lava dome growth, Vulcanian explosions, and pyroclastic flows, prompting repeated alert-level changes.

**Osorno** — This 2,659-m (8,727-ft) glacier-clad stratovolcano is often called the 'Fuji of South America' for its near-perfect conical symmetry above Lake Llanquihué. With 17 confirmed eruptions and a VEI max of 4, Osorno is a major tourist icon and ski destination.

**Chaitén** — This small caldera erupted unexpectedly in 2008 after more than 9,000 years of quiescence, producing rhyolitic Plinian columns and forcing the complete evacuation of the nearby town of Chaitén (population 4,600). The eruption continued through 2011, demonstrating that long-dormant volcanoes can reawaken without warning.

**Planchón-Peteroa** — An elongated complex straddling the Chile-Argentina border, Planchón-Peteroa has 21 confirmed eruptions spanning the Holocene. Its most recent activity in 2025 continues a pattern of frequent phreatic and phreatomagmatic events from this complex multi-vent system.

**Ojos del Salado** — At 6,879 m (22,572 ft), Ojos del Salado is the world's tallest volcano, shared between Chile and Argentina. Though it has only one confirmed eruption (around 750 CE), young sulfur flows and fumarolic deposits near the summit suggest it should not be considered extinct. It is also the second-highest peak in the Western Hemisphere after Aconcagua.

**Copahue** — Straddling the Chile-Argentina border at 2,953 m (9,689 ft), Copahue has 21 confirmed eruptions and last erupted in 2024. Its acidic crater lake and persistent fumarolic activity make it one of the most consistently restless volcanoes in the southern Andes.

Chile's volcanic eruption history spans the entire Holocene, with 582 confirmed eruptions documented across its 90 volcanoes. The country's eruption record reveals a persistent drumbeat of activity dominated by moderate explosive events (VEI 2 accounts for 301 eruptions, or 52% of events with assigned VEI values), alongside periodic catastrophic eruptions that have shaped the Andean landscape.

The largest Holocene eruptions in Chile have reached VEI 6, including massive caldera-related events at Cerro Hudson (~4750 BCE and ~1890 BCE) and Michinmahuida (~8400 BCE). These events deposited thick tephra layers detectable across Patagonia and serve as important stratigraphic markers for geologists. At VEI 5, Chile has experienced 18 events, including explosive eruptions at Puyehue-Cordón Caulle (860 CE, 2011 CE), Calbuco (~8460 BCE, ~6760 BCE), Chaitén (~3100 BCE), Villarrica (~1810 BCE), Llaima (~6880 BCE), Sollipulli (~920 CE), Monte Burney, and Cerro Azul's 1932 eruption.

The historical period (post-1550 CE) has seen frequent activity concentrated in the Southern Volcanic Zone. Villarrica has been the dominant contributor, with major eruptions in 1640, 1730, 1864, 1908, 1948–49, 1963–64, 1971, 1984–85, and 2015. The 1971 Villarrica eruption generated lahars that killed 15 people and destroyed infrastructure in nearby valleys.

In the north, Láscar has been active since the 1850s, with its most significant modern eruption in April 1993 (VEI 4) producing pyroclastic flows and an eruption column reaching 25 km altitude.

The 21st century has been remarkably active for Chilean volcanism. Major events include the 2008–2011 Chaitén eruption (the first large rhyolitic eruption since Novarupta in 1912), the 2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption (VEI 5, disrupting air travel across the Southern Hemisphere), the 2015 Calbuco eruption (two powerful sub-Plinian blasts after 43 years of quiet), and ongoing activity at Nevados de Chillán (2016–2022), Copahue (recurring since 2012), Villarrica (2015, 2025), and Planchón-Peteroa (2025). These events underscore Chile's position as one of the most volcanically dynamic countries on Earth, comparable in eruption frequency to [[country:indonesia|Indonesia]] and [[country:japan|Japan]].

Chile faces a diverse spectrum of volcanic hazards shaped by its unique geography — long river valleys draining glacier-clad peaks, arid desert terrains in the north, and densely forested slopes in the south. Lahars (volcanic mudflows) represent the most lethal hazard, particularly for volcanoes in the Southern Volcanic Zone where glaciers and snowpack provide abundant water. Villarrica's glaciated summit has generated devastating lahars in 1964, 1971, and 2015 that swept through the Turbio, Zanjón Seco, and Voipir river valleys.

Pyroclastic flows and surges are a critical threat from stratovolcanoes capable of VEI 4+ events; Lascar's 1993 pyroclastic flows traveled 8.5 km and Calbuco's 2015 eruption sent pyroclastic density currents into the Blanco Sur valley.

Tephra fall poses regional economic disruption across Chile's agricultural heartland and neighboring Argentina. The 2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption deposited centimeters of ash on Bariloche, Argentina, disrupted air travel across the Southern Hemisphere for weeks, and caused estimated economic losses exceeding $120 million. Lava flows are most common at basaltic centers like Villarrica, Llaima, and Osorno, though they typically advance slowly enough for evacuation.

Volcanic gas emissions — particularly SO₂ — are persistent hazards at degassing volcanoes like Láscar, Copahue, and Villarrica.

SERNAGEOMIN's Red Nacional de Vigilancia Volcánica (RNVV) monitors 45 volcanoes across four alert levels (Green, Yellow, Orange, Red) and has successfully forecast several recent eruptions, including Calbuco 2015. Approximately 4.5 million Chileans live within 100 km of an active volcano, with cities like Pucón, Temuco, Puerto Montt, and Chillán particularly exposed.

Chile's volcanoes are distributed across four distinct volcanic zones, each reflecting variations in subduction geometry and crustal structure. The Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) extends from approximately 14°S to 28°S and encompasses the high-altitude volcanoes of the Chilean altiplano and northern Atacama, including Ojos del Salado (6,879 m), Llullaillaco (6,739 m), Parinacota (6,336 m), Guallatiri (6,071 m), and Láscar (5,592 m). These are among the highest volcanoes on Earth, many exceeding 5,500 m, sitting atop the thick continental crust of the Central Andes.

Between 28°S and 33°S lies the Pampean flat-slab segment, where the subducting Nazca Plate descends at an unusually shallow angle of approximately 5–10°, creating a volcanic gap with no Holocene volcanoes. South of this gap, the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ, 33°S–46°S) is Chile's most volcanically prolific region, hosting the majority of its historically active centers including Tupungatito, Planchón-Peteroa, Nevados de Chillán, Llaima, Villarrica, Osorno, Calbuco, and Puyehue-Cordón Caulle. The SVZ volcanoes erupt through thinner crust (30–40 km) and produce a wider range of compositions from basalt to rhyolite.

The Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ, 49°S–55°S) includes the remote and largely ice-covered volcanoes of southern Patagonia — Lautaro, Aguilera, Reclus, Monte Burney — and terminates with Fueguino, the southernmost volcano in South America at 54°S. A single oceanic volcano, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), lies 3,700 km offshore in the Pacific.

Volcanism has profoundly shaped Chilean culture, economy, and landscape. The fertile volcanic soils of central and southern Chile support the country's renowned wine industry — vineyards in the Maule, Biobío, and Araucanía regions grow on andisols derived from Holocene tephra deposits. Geothermal energy potential is enormous; Chile's first geothermal power plant at Cerro Pabellón in the Atacama (opened 2017) taps volcanic heat at 4,500 m elevation, and further developments are planned near Tolhuaca and other volcanic systems.

Volcanoes are central to the cultural identity of the Mapuche people, Chile's largest indigenous group. [[volcano:villarrica|Villarrica]] is known as Rukapillán ('House of the Spirits') in Mapudungun, and [[volcano:llaima|Llaima]] features prominently in Mapuche cosmology as a dwelling place of powerful spirits (pillán). The catastrophic nature of volcanic eruptions is woven into Mapuche oral tradition extending back centuries.

Tourism centered on volcanoes generates significant revenue for southern Chile. Pucón, at the base of Villarrica, has become Chile's adventure tourism capital, offering guided summit climbs, ski runs on volcanic slopes, and hot springs heated by volcanic activity. Volcán Osorno supports a popular ski center, while the 2008 Chaitén eruption — despite devastating the town — created a compelling geological tourism attraction.

Chile's volcanic landscapes are protected within numerous national parks, including Conguillío (Llaima), Villarrica, Puyehue, and Vicente Pérez Rosales (Osorno).

Chile offers some of the most accessible volcano tourism in South America, concentrated in the Lakes District between Temuco and Puerto Montt. [[volcano:villarrica|Villarrica]] is the most popular volcanic summit hike in Chile — guided ascents depart daily from Pucón (weather permitting), taking 4–6 hours to reach the 2,847-m summit where climbers can peer into the glowing lava lake. The hike requires crampons, ice axes, and a certified guide; conditions are best from November through March. Volcán Osorno, accessed from the Las Cascadas road above Lake Llanquihué, offers both a ski center (June–September) and summer hiking with spectacular views of Calbuco, Tronador, and the lake district.

In the Atacama, Láscar and the surrounding high-altitude volcanoes attract experienced mountaineers. Ojos del Salado draws summit attempts year-round, though the extreme altitude (6,879 m) requires full acclimatization. The San Pedro de Atacama area provides access to Licancabur, Sairecabur, and numerous volcanic geothermal features including El Tatio geyser field.

Further south, Conguillío National Park offers hiking through ancient Araucaria forests on the flanks of Llaima, while the 2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle lava fields are becoming an emerging trekking destination. Visitors should always check SERNAGEOMIN's volcanic alert system ([[ext:https://www.sernageomin.cl/red-nacional-de-vigilancia-volcanica/|SERNAGEOMIN RNVV]]) before approaching any active volcano.